Original Research

The post-occipital spinal venous sinus of the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus): Its anatomy and use for blood sample collection and intravenous infusions

Jan G. Myburgh, Robert M. Kirberger, Johan C.A. Steyl, John T. Soley, Dirk G. Booyse, Fritz W. Huchzermeyer, Russel H. Lowers, Louis J. Guillette Jr
Journal of the South African Veterinary Association | Vol 85, No 1 | a965 | DOI: https://doi.org/10.4102/jsava.v85i1.965 | © 2014 Jan G. Myburgh, Robert M. Kirberger, Johan C.A. Steyl, John T. Soley, Dirk G. Booyse, Fritz W. Huchzermeyer, Russel H. Lowers, Louis J. Guillette Jr | This work is licensed under CC Attribution 4.0
Submitted: 28 November 2012 | Published: 05 May 2014

About the author(s)

Jan G. Myburgh, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Robert M. Kirberger, Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Johan C.A. Steyl, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa
John T. Soley, Department of Anatomy and Physiology, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Dirk G. Booyse, Department of Anatomy and Physiology, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Fritz W. Huchzermeyer, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Russel H. Lowers, InoMedic Health Applications, Kennedy Space Center, United States
Louis J. Guillette Jr, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical University of South Carolina, United States and Hollings Marine Laboratory, Charleston, United States

Abstract

The post-occipital sinus of the spinal vein is often used for the collection of blood samples from crocodilians. Although this sampling method has been reported for several crocodilian species, the technique and associated anatomy has not been described in detail in any crocodilian, including the Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). The anatomy of the cranial neck region was investigated macroscopically, microscopically, radiographically and by means of computed tomography. Latex was injected into the spinal vein and spinal venous sinus of crocodiles to visualise the regional vasculature. The spinal vein ran within the vertebral canal, dorsal to and closely associated with the spinal cord and changed into a venous sinus cranially in the post-occipital region. For blood collection, the spinal venous sinus was accessed through the interarcuate space between the atlas and axis (C1 and C2) by inserting a needle angled just off the perpendicular in the midline through the craniodorsal cervical skin, just cranial to the cranial borders of the first cervical osteoderms. The most convenient method of blood collection was with a syringe and hypodermic needle. In addition, the suitability of the spinal venous sinus for intravenous injections and infusions in live crocodiles was evaluated. The internal diameter of the commercial human epidural catheters used during these investigations was relatively small, resulting in very slow infusion rates. Care should be taken not to puncture the spinal cord or to lacerate the blood vessel wall using this route for blood collection or intravenous infusions.

Keywords

anatomy, blood sampling, computed tomography, Crocodylus niloticus, intravenous infusion, Nile crocodile, spinal vein, spinal venous sinus

Metrics

Total abstract views: 6086
Total article views: 14883

 

Crossref Citations

1. Micronuclei and other nuclear abnormalities on Caiman latirostris (Broad-snouted caiman) hatchlings after embryonic exposure to different pesticide formulations
E.C. López González, A. Larriera, P.A. Siroski, G.L. Poletta
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety  vol: 136  first page: 84  year: 2017  
doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.10.035

2. Capture of farmed Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus): comparison of physiological parameters after manual capture and after capture with electrical stunning
S. Pfitzer, A. Ganswindt, G. T. Fosgate, P. J. Botha, J. G. Myburgh
Veterinary Record  vol: 175  issue: 12  first page: 304  year: 2014  
doi: 10.1136/vr.102438

3. How the exposure to environmentally relevant pesticide formulations affects the expression of stress response genes and its relation to oxidative damage and genotoxicity in Caiman latirostris
Lucia M. Odetti, Evelyn C. López González, Pablo A. Siroski, Ma. Fernanda Simoniello, Gisela L. Poletta
Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology  vol: 97  first page: 104014  year: 2023  
doi: 10.1016/j.etap.2022.104014

4. Temporal Dynamics of Plasma Catecholamines, Metabolic and Immune Markers, and the Corticosterone:DHEA Ratio in Farmed Crocodiles before and after an Acute Stressor
Andre A. Swanepoel, Christoff Truter, Francois P. Viljoen, Jan G. Myburgh, Brian H. Harvey
Animals  vol: 14  issue: 15  first page: 2236  year: 2024  
doi: 10.3390/ani14152236

5. Effectiveness of Morelet's crocodile as a bioindicator of metal pollution and metallothionein response to spatial variations of metal exposure
A.M. Buenfil-Rojas, T. Alvarez-Legorreta, M. González-Jáuregui, J. Rendón-von Osten, J.R. Cedeño-Vázquez
Environmental Advances  vol: 8  first page: 100251  year: 2022  
doi: 10.1016/j.envadv.2022.100251

6. Use of Blood Lactate in Assessment of Manual Capture Techniques of Zoo-Housed Crocodilians
Holly Grace Molinaro, Gen S. Anderson, Lauren Gruny, Emily S. Sperou, Darryl J. Heard
Animals  vol: 12  issue: 3  first page: 397  year: 2022  
doi: 10.3390/ani12030397

7. Identification and tissue‐specific expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism in broad‐snouted caiman
C. F. Chacón, M. V. Parachú Marcó, P. A. Siroski, G. L. Poletta
Journal of Zoology  year: 2025  
doi: 10.1111/jzo.70071

8. Stress responses in the chemistry and mRNA abundance of the peripheral blood in the American alligator
Satomi Kohno, Jianguo Zhu, Louis J. Guillette
Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Ecological and Integrative Physiology  vol: 333  issue: 3  first page: 151  year: 2020  
doi: 10.1002/jez.2337

9. Nondestructive Evaluation of Metal Bioaccumulation and Biochemical Biomarkers in Blood of Broad-Snouted Caiman (Caiman latirostris) from Northeastern Brasil
Rayssa Lima dos Santos, Célio Freire Mariz Jr., Paulo Braga Mascarenhas-Júnior, Rafael Sá Leitão Barboza, Ednilza Maranhão dos Santos, Jozélia Maria Sousa Correia, Paulo Sérgio Martins Carvalho
Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry  vol: 43  issue: 4  first page: 878  year: 2024  
doi: 10.1002/etc.5823

10. Quantifying Circulating IgY Antibody Responses against Select Opportunistic Bacterial Pathogens and Correlations with Body Condition Factors in Wild American Alligators, Alligator mississippiensis
Bailey M. Alston, Thomas R. Rainwater, Benjamin B. Parrott, Philip M. Wilkinson, John A. Bowden, Charles D. Rice
Biology  vol: 11  issue: 2  first page: 269  year: 2022  
doi: 10.3390/biology11020269

11. Effects of glyphosate, 2,4-D, chlorantraniliprole, and imidacloprid formulations, separately and in mixtures in Caiman latirostris hatchlings
Lucia M. Odetti, Camila F. Chacón, Pablo A. Siroski, Ma. Fernanda Simoniello, Gisela L. Poletta
Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology  vol: 469  first page: 116544  year: 2023  
doi: 10.1016/j.taap.2023.116544

12. Examining maternal and environmental transfer of mercury into American alligator eggs
Frances M. Nilsen, Thomas R. Rainwater, Phil M. Wilkinson, Arnold M. Brunell, Russell H. Lowers, John A. Bowden, Louis J. Guillette, Stephen E. Long, Tracey B. Schock
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety  vol: 189  first page: 110057  year: 2020  
doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.110057

13. Serological evidence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in Melanosuchus niger (Spix, 1825) and Caimam crocodilus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Flávia Batista Ferreira, Arlindo Gomes de Macêdo-Júnior, Carolina Salomão Lopes, Murilo Vieira Silva, Eliézer Lucas Pires Ramos, Álvaro Ferreira Júnior, Sérgio Netto Vitaliano, Fernanda Maria Santiago, André Luis Quagliatto Santos, José Roberto Mineo, Tiago Wilson Patriarca Mineo
International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife  vol: 12  first page: 42  year: 2020  
doi: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2020.04.008

14. High Lead Exposure and Clinical Signs of Toxicosis in Wild Nile Crocodiles (Crocodylus Niloticus) from a World Heritage Site: Lake St Lucia Estuarine System, South Africa
Marc Humphries, Jan Myburgh, Robert Campbell, Xander Combrink
SSRN Electronic Journal   year: 2022  
doi: 10.2139/ssrn.4055013

15. Global DNA methylation loss associated with mercury contamination and aging in the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis)
Frances M. Nilsen, Benjamin B. Parrott, John A. Bowden, Brittany L. Kassim, Stephen E. Somerville, Teresa A. Bryan, Colleen E. Bryan, Ted R. Lange, J. Patrick Delaney, Arnold M. Brunell, Stephen E. Long, Louis J. Guillette
Science of The Total Environment  vol: 545-546  first page: 389  year: 2016  
doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.059

16. Evidence for Wild Crocodiles as a Risk for Human Leptospirosis, Mexico
Jonathan Pérez-Flores, Pierre Charruau, Rogelio Cedeño-Vázquez, Daniel Atilano
EcoHealth  vol: 14  issue: 1  first page: 58  year: 2017  
doi: 10.1007/s10393-016-1196-7

17. Hybridization patterns and evolutionary clues in broad‐snouted caiman and yacare caiman: Insights from phylogeographic and ecological analyses
G. Pacheco‐Sierra, P. Amavet, P. Siroski, C. Piña, C. Patrón‐Rivero, C. Yáñez‐Arenas
Journal of Zoology  vol: 326  issue: 3  first page: 214  year: 2025  
doi: 10.1111/jzo.70013

18. A review of venipuncture sites in Alligator mississippiensis with anatomical description of a novel venipuncture site
Ray Wilhite, Javier Nevarez
The Anatomical Record  vol: 305  issue: 10  first page: 3031  year: 2022  
doi: 10.1002/ar.24995

19. Urinary iodine and stable isotope analysis to examine habitat influences on thyroid hormones among coastal dwelling American alligators
Ashley S.P. Boggs, Heather J. Hamlin, James C. Nifong, Brittany L. Kassim, Russell H. Lowers, Thomas M. Galligan, Stephen E. Long, Louis J. Guillette
General and Comparative Endocrinology  vol: 226  first page: 5  year: 2016  
doi: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2015.12.006

20. Influence of Temporal Growth Variation on Blood Plasma Concentrations of Metals and Metallothioneins in Morelet’s Crocodiles (Crocodylus moreletii) from Quintana Roo, Mexico
Asela Marisol Buenfil-Rojas, Teresa Alvarez-Legorreta, Mauricio González-Jáuregui
Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  vol: 89  issue: 4  first page: 519  year: 2025  
doi: 10.1007/s00244-025-01165-2

21. Biomarkers of genotoxicity, immunotoxicity and oxidative stress on Caiman latirostris (Broad-snouted caiman) hatchlings exposed to pesticide formulations and mixtures widely used in agriculture
E.C. López González, M.L. Romito, M.A. Latorre, P.A. Siroski, G.L. Poletta
Environmental Advances  vol: 5  first page: 100114  year: 2021  
doi: 10.1016/j.envadv.2021.100114

22. Blood concentrations of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances are associated with autoimmune-like effects in American alligators from Wilmington, North Carolina
T. C. Guillette, Thomas W. Jackson, Matthew Guillette, James McCord, Scott M. Belcher
Frontiers in Toxicology  vol: 4  year: 2022  
doi: 10.3389/ftox.2022.1010185

23. Antibodies against Leptospira spp. in Free-Living and Captive Broad-Snouted Caiman (Caiman latirostris) and Free-Living Yacare Caiman (Caiman yacare) in Brazil
Daniela N. Nossa, Yhuri C. Nóbrega, Igor C. L. Acosta, Marcelo Renan D. Santos, Paulo Q. Menezes, Marcos B. Heinemann, Antônio Francisco Souza Filho, Ana Carolina Srbek-Araujo
Journal of Wildlife Diseases  vol: 60  issue: 3  year: 2024  
doi: 10.7589/JWD-D-23-00185

24. Blood biochemistry parameters of Broad snouted caiman, Caiman latirostris subjected to stress conditions, appliying micro‐volume techniques
María Soledad Moleón, Gonzalo Santiago, Samuel Hilevski, Pablo Ariel Siroski
Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Ecological and Integrative Physiology  vol: 339  issue: 7  first page: 619  year: 2023  
doi: 10.1002/jez.2705

25. Non-invasive assessment of adrenocortical function in captive Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus)
Stefanie B. Ganswindt, Jan G. Myburgh, Elissa Z. Cameron, Andre Ganswindt
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology  vol: 177  first page: 11  year: 2014  
doi: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2014.07.013

26. Association of size, climatic factors, and mercury body burdens with movement behavior in American alligators
Laura V. Kojima, Michel T. Kohl, Thomas R. Rainwater, Benjamin B. Parrott, Tracey D. Tuberville
Science of The Total Environment  vol: 921  first page: 170859  year: 2024  
doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170859

27. Metallic elements in aquatic herpetofauna (Crocodylia; Testudines) from a lentic Atlantic rainforest environment in northeastern Brazil
Rayssa Lima Dos Santos, Jozélia Maria de Sousa Correia, Ana Paula Silveira Paim, Lourinalda Luiza da Silva Selva de Oliveira, George Tadeu Nunes Diniz, Ednilza Maranhão dos Santos
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment  vol: 193  issue: 5  year: 2021  
doi: 10.1007/s10661-021-09076-0

28. Long-term surgical anaesthesia with isoflurane in human habituated Nile Crocodiles
George F. Stegmann, Catherine J.A. Williams, Craig Franklin, Tobias Wang, Michael Axelsson
Journal of the South African Veterinary Association  vol: 88  year: 2017  
doi: 10.4102/jsava.v88i0.1451

29. Detection of Leptospira spp. in Captive Broad-Snouted Caiman (Caiman latirostris)
Lucas Nogueira Paz, Camila Hamond, Carla Silva Dias, Vitor P. Curvelo, Marco Alberto Medeiros, Arianne Pontes Oriá, Melissa Hanzen Pinna
EcoHealth  vol: 16  issue: 4  first page: 694  year: 2019  
doi: 10.1007/s10393-019-01452-0

30. HEMATOLOGY AND BLOOD CHEMISTRY VALUES IN CUBAN CROCODILES (CROCODYLUS RHOMBIFER) HOUSED AT THE ZAPATA SWAMP CROCODILE FARM, CUBA
Jamie L. Palmer, Ainoa Nieto-Claudín, Gustavo Sosa Rodriguez, Etiam Perez Fleitas, Lauren Augustine, Sharon L. Deem
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine  vol: 54  issue: 2  year: 2023  
doi: 10.1638/2022-0047

31. Blood lead concentrations in free-ranging Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) from South Africa
Jonathan K. Warner, Xander Combrink, Jan G. Myburgh, Colleen T. Downs
Ecotoxicology  vol: 25  issue: 5  first page: 950  year: 2016  
doi: 10.1007/s10646-016-1652-8

32. Biomarkers of geno- and cytotoxicity in the native broad-snouted caiman (Caiman latirostris): Chromosomal aberrations and mitotic index
Camila Felisa Chacón, Evelyn Cecilia López González, Gisela Laura Poletta
Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis  vol: 867  first page: 503353  year: 2021  
doi: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2021.503353

33. Effectiveness of Morelet's Crocodile as a Bioindicator of Metal Pollution and Metallothionein Response to Spatial Variations of Metal Exposure
Asela Marisol Buenfil-Rojas, Teresa Alvarez-Legorreta, Mauricio González-Jáuregui, Jaime Rendón-von Osten, José Rogelio Cedeño-Vazquez
SSRN Electronic Journal   year: 2022  
doi: 10.2139/ssrn.4051087

34. Effects of physical restraint and endogenous adrenocorticotropin challenges on corticosterone levels and immunological indexes in the Broad-snouted Caiman (Caiman latirostris)
María Soledad Moleón, Pablo Fernando Cuervo, María Virginia Parachú Marcó, Elisa Olivia Pietrobon, Graciela Alma Jahn, Pablo Ariel Siroski
Canadian Journal of Zoology  vol: 101  issue: 1  first page: 11  year: 2023  
doi: 10.1139/cjz-2022-0053

35. Nonlinear patterns in mercury bioaccumulation in American alligators are a function of predicted age
Abigail J. Lawson, Clinton T. Moore, Thomas R. Rainwater, Frances M. Nilsen, Philip M. Wilkinson, Russell H. Lowers, Louis J. Guillette, K.W. McFadden, Patrick G.R. Jodice
Science of The Total Environment  vol: 707  first page: 135103  year: 2020  
doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135103

36. Physiological stress response in free‐living Amazonian caimans following experimental capture
Wallice P. Duncan, Janes N. A. Júnior, Washington C. S. Mendonça, Idamara F. Santa Cruz, Jean F. Samonek, Ester J. F. Morais, Jaydione L. Marcon, Ronis Da Silveira
Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Ecological and Integrative Physiology  vol: 337  issue: 4  first page: 282  year: 2022  
doi: 10.1002/jez.2565

37. Molecular analysis and bioinformatic characterization of cooper, zinc-superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn-sod) gene of Caiman latirostris
E. V. Paravani, L. M. Odetti, M. F. Simoniello, G. L. Poletta
Molecular Biology Reports  vol: 47  issue: 11  first page: 8849  year: 2020  
doi: 10.1007/s11033-020-05937-y

38. Evaluating mercury concentrations and body condition in American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) at Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge (MINWR), Florida
Frances M. Nilsen, Jonathan E. Dorsey, Russell H. Lowers, Louis J. Guillette, Stephen E. Long, John A. Bowden, Tracey B. Schock
Science of The Total Environment  vol: 607-608  first page: 1056  year: 2017  
doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.07.073

39. Conservation implications of tourism and stress for Amazonian caimans
Washington C. S. Mendonça, Wallice P. Duncan, Marcelo D. Vidal, William E. Magnusson, Ronis Da Silveira
The Journal of Wildlife Management  vol: 87  issue: 8  year: 2023  
doi: 10.1002/jwmg.22482

40. Exposure of Sub-adult Nile Crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) to Extreme Lead Concentrations: A 48-week Experimental Study with Implications for Wild Populations
Fortunate Davhana, Marc Humphries, Gareth Hunter, Nimmi Seoraj-Pillai, Xander Combrink
Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  vol: 89  issue: 3  first page: 372  year: 2025  
doi: 10.1007/s00244-025-01159-0

41. High lead exposure and clinical signs of toxicosis in wild Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) from a World Heritage site: Lake St Lucia estuarine system, South Africa
Marc Humphries, Jan Myburgh, Robert Campbell, Xander Combrink
Chemosphere  vol: 303  first page: 134977  year: 2022  
doi: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134977

42. Examining toxic trace element exposure in American alligators
Frances M. Nilsen, John A. Bowden, Thomas R. Rainwater, Arnold M. Brunell, Brittany L. Kassim, Phil M. Wilkinson, Louis J. Guillette, Stephen E. Long, Tracey B. Schock
Environment International  vol: 128  first page: 324  year: 2019  
doi: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.04.035

43. The Crocodylian proatlas functions to redistribute venous blood and cerebrospinal fluid
Annelise Swords, Michael Cramberg, Seth Parker, Anchal Scott, Stephanie Sopko, Ethan Taylor, Bruce A. Young
Journal of Morphology  vol: 285  issue: 3  year: 2024  
doi: 10.1002/jmor.21683

44. Comparative assessment of blood mercury in American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) from Coastal North Carolina and Florida
Scott M. Belcher, Matthew P. Guillette, Frank Robb, Kylie D. Rock
Ecotoxicology  vol: 31  issue: 7  first page: 1137  year: 2022  
doi: 10.1007/s10646-022-02573-z

45. Effects of anticoagulants time storage on stable isotope values of crocodilians’ blood tissues
Luciana M. Beloto, Neliton R. F. Lara, Luís A. B. Bassetti, Beatriz F. Littig, Ronnie V. M. Ferreira, Luciano M. Verdade, Plínio B. Camargo, Thiago S. Marques
Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies  vol: 60  issue: 5  first page: 544  year: 2024  
doi: 10.1080/10256016.2024.2403655

46. Oil dispersant Corexit 9500 is weakly estrogenic, but does not skew the sex ratio in Alligator mississippiensis
Nicole A. McNabb, Melissa C. Bernhard, Arnold Brunell, Russell H. Lowers, Yoshinao Katsu, Demetri D. Spyropoulos, Satomi Kohno
Journal of Applied Toxicology  vol: 40  issue: 2  first page: 245  year: 2020  
doi: 10.1002/jat.3900

47. Genotoxicity and oxidative stress in Caiman latirostris hatchlings exposed to pesticide formulations and their mixtures during incubation period
L.M. Odetti, E.C. López González, M.L. Romito, M.F. Simoniello, G.L. Poletta
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety  vol: 193  first page: 110312  year: 2020  
doi: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110312

48. Alterations in the Expression of Antioxidant Enzyme Genes in Response to Pesticide Exposure During Embryonic Development in the Native Reptile Species Caiman latirostris
L. M. Odetti, M. F. Simoniello, G. L. Poletta
Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology  vol: 110  issue: 1  year: 2023  
doi: 10.1007/s00128-022-03652-x

49. HEALTH SURVEY INCLUDING SELECTED BLOOD PARAMETERS IN THE AFRICAN SLENDER SNOUTED CROCODILE (MECISTOPS CATAPHRACTUS) AT THE ABIDJAN ZOO IN CÔTE D'IVOIRE
Carol Bradford, Matt Eschenbrenner
Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine  vol: 48  issue: 2  first page: 510  year: 2017  
doi: 10.1638/2016-0006R3.1

50. On the spinal venous sinus of Alligator mississippiensis
Seth Parker, Michael Cramberg, Anchal Scott, Stephanie Sopko, Annelise Swords, Ethan Taylor, Bruce A. Young
The Anatomical Record  vol: 307  issue: 9  first page: 2953  year: 2024  
doi: 10.1002/ar.25403